Glossary

Twins which have been produced by the division of a single zygote (monozygotic). Each twin has an identical genotype. While each twin begins with the same set of genetic information, the effect of the environment within which each individual grows up can cause differences in how their genetic make-up is expressed.

A biological defence system that has evolved in vertebrates to protect them against the introduction of foreign material (such as pollen or invading micro-organisms) and to prevent the body from developing cancer. See also: immune response and antigen.

Industry has been the subject of a specific article in the EC Treaty since 1993, when the EU Treaty came into force. Article 157 (former Article 130) requires the Community and the Member States to secure the conditions necessary for the competitiveness of Community industry.

Specific measures may be taken by the Community, but only on condition that they do not entail any distortion of competition. The Community is also required to contribute towards achieving the objectives of Article 157 through the policies and activities it pursues under other provisions of the Treaty.

In terms of decision-making, the Council acts unanimously on a Commission proposal, after consulting the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee.

Use of a DNA or RNA probe to detect the presence of the complementary DNA sequence in cloned bacterial or cultured eukaryotic cells.

Pertaining to a biochemical process or reaction taking place in a test-tube (or more broadly, in a lab) as opposed to taking place in a living cell or organism. Compare "in vivo".

Pertaining to a biological process or reaction taking place in a living cell or organism. Compare "ex vivo" and "in vitro".

The process by which an individual willingly and voluntarily agrees to participate in an activity after first understanding the risks and benefits or participation vs. non-participation in an activity or research study. In a genetic study, potential participants should be appraised of the study goals, risks, benefits, alternative to participation ,disclosure policies and financial and time commitments involved in study participation. The informed consent process should be documents, typically with a signed consent form approved by an Institutional Review Board. Special considerations apply to vulnerable populations (i.e., minors, mentally handicapped individuals).

A cross between two animals that have the same heterozygous genotype at designated loci; for example, between sibling F1 hybrids that were derived from an outcross between two inbred strains.

The period in the cell cycle when DNA is replicated in the nucleus; followed by mitosis.

A set of clones of DNA sequences from an organism's genome. A particular library might include, for example, clones of all of the DNA sequences expressed in a certain kind of cell, or in a certain organ of the body. See: gene expression.

Refers to the tendency of certain genes to be inherited together. Two genes are said to be "linked" if they are often inherited together, due to their close proximity on a chronosome. See: marker.

A map of the relative positions of genetic loci on a chromosome, determined on the basis of how often the loci are inherited together. Distance is measured in centimorgans (cM).

Organic substances (e.g. fats, oils, steroids etc.), insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.

A living organism that has a new combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.

Determination of the original position (locus) of a gene or other marker on a chromosome.

(pl. loci) The position on a chromosome of a gene or other chromosome marker; also, the DNA at that posistion . The use of locus is sometimes restricted to mean regions of DNA that are expressed. See: gene expression.

Maps of the human genome are generally of two types, genetic and physical. Genetic maps measure the amount of recombination between two loc and genetic map units are quantified as either % recombination (theta) or cM between two loci. Physical maps aim to quantify the actual amount of DNA, ususally in base pairs, between two loci. 1% recombination is equivalent to 1,000,000 base pairs of DNA. (See cM description).

See: genetic map.

A group of organisms sharing a common gene pool used in the construction of a genetic map.

A sequence of bases at a unique physical location in the genome, which varies sufficiently between individuals that its pattern of inheritance can be tracked through families and/or it can be used to distinguish among cell types. A marker may or may not be part of a gene. Markers are essential for use in linkage studies and genetic maps to help scientists to narrow down the possible location of new genes, and to discover the associations between genetic mutations and disease.

The reduction division process by which haploid gametes and spores are formed, consisting of a single duplication of the genetic material followed by two mitotic divisions.

In cells, the "plasma" or "cell" membrane is a sheet-like structure that surrounds cell, contains their inner contents and regulates the movement of materials in and out of the cell. At the tissue level, membranes (tissues usually composed of cells) also serve to surround and regulate material transport, but do so at a larger level.

An organism that can be seen only under a microscope. Categories of microorganisms include Algae, Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa, Viruses or Subviral Agents. Also referred to as microbe

The process of nuclear division in cells that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.

The study of the biochemical and molecular interactions witin living cells.

The biological amplification of a specific DNA sequence through mitotic division of a host cell into which it  has been transformed or transfected. See: cloning.

The task of monitoring the application of Community law falls to the European Commission as the guardian of the Treaties. It is an expression of the fact that the European Union is based on the rule of law and its purpose is to make sure that the law is observed and actually applied in and by the Member States. In exercising its monitoring function the Commission takes care to safeguard the role which is also assigned to national authorities, particularly the courts, in this area.

Monitoring the application of the law may take the following forms:

• instituting infringement proceedings following complaints or where cases are discovered in the ordinary course of events;
• court action against the other institutions;
• checking whether aid given by the Member States is lawful;
• checking that the principles prohibiting certain types of agreements, decisions and concerted practices and the abuse of a dominant position are observed.

The Commission's annual reports on the application of Community law are an expression of the desire for transparency in dealings not only with complainants but also with citizens and members of parliament.

A cell produced by the fusion of an antibody-producing cell (such as a B-lymphocyte) with an immortal cancer cell, This process is accomplished in a laboratory and produces a hybrid (hybridoma) that expresses properties of both cells. Since the cells are all identical and are produced by cloning one specific cell in great numbers, they are called "monoclonal". These cells produce large amounts of a specific antibody that bind to a specific surface antigen. Since the cells are all identical they can be used  to identify, and then isolate a specific cell population, such as a collection of cells responsible for disease. Monoclonal antibodies are often used in vaccine development processes.

Twins which have been produced by the division of a single zygote. Each twin has an identical genotype. As such, these individuals are often referred to as "identical twins". While each twin begins with the same set of genetic information, the effect of the environment within which each individual grows up can cause differences in how their genetic make-up is expressed.

A trait is considered to be multifactorial in origin when two or more genes, together with an environmental effect, work together to lead to a phenotype.

A mixture of pure lines or cultivated varieties that are phenotypically similar in all important agronomic characteristics but are genotypically different.

(to herbicides) Of a plant, being able to tolerate a number of different herbicides.

A sequencing approach that uses several pooled samples simultaneously, greatly increasing sequencing speed.

A process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed in a stable, heritable manner, either in nature or experimentally by the use of chemicals or radiation. In agriculture, these genetic changes are used to develop useful traits.

A change, deletion, or rearrangement in the DNA sequence that may lead to the synthesis of an altered inactive protein the loss of the ability to produce the protein. If a mutation occurs in a germ cell, then it is a heritable change in that it can be transmitted to all daughter cells.

A roundworm or threadworm that attacks plants and animals.

Property of microorgisms to convert nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into a chemically combined form, ammonia, which is essential to plant growth.

A plant possessing characteristics not normally found in that species where the new characteristic has been created through specific genetic manipulation, transformation, mutation, etc..

The transfer of a diploid cell nucleus from a donor cell into another cell that has had its original nucleus removed (enucleated cell).

The 'building block' of nucleic acids, such as the DNA molecule. A nucleotide consists of one of four bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine - attached to a phosphate-sugar group. In DNA the sugar group is desoxyribose, while in RNA (a DNA-related molecule which helps to translate genetic information into proteins), the sugar group is ribose, and the base uracil substitutes for thymine. Each group of three nucleotides in a gene is known as a codon. A nucleic acid is a long chain of nucleotides joined together, and therefore is sometimes referred to as a "polynucleotide".

Various committees have been set up within the European Parliament to organise its work. The members of each committee are elected at the beginning of and half-way through each parliamentary term, according to their political affiliation and their expertise.

Parliament's Rules of Procedure specify that the Members of Parliament set the number of committees and determine their powers. At present there are seventeen specialised permanent committees in which the Commission's proposals are discussed. Parliament can also set up sub-committees, temporary committees and committees of inquiry if it considers it necessary. Two committees of inquiry have been set up so far: on the Community transit procedure in 1996 and on the bovine spongiform encepalopathy (BSE) epidemic in 1997.

The main task of the permanent committees is to debate proposals for new legislation put forward by the European Commission and to draw up own-initiative reports. For any proposal for legislation or other initiative, a rapporteur is nominated according to an agreement between the political groups which make up Parliament. His or her report is discussed, amended and voted on within the parliamentary committee and then transmitted to the plenary assembly, which meets once a month in Strasbourg, and which debates and votes on the basis of this report.

As preparation for Parliament's vote of approval of the European Commission, the parliamentary committees also hear the proposed Members of the Commission in their specialised areas.

Specific causative agent of disease.

The breeding line from which a parent of a cross is taken.

The development of an organism from an unfertilized egg. This process is relatively common in plants, but less so among animals. Some species of insects can produce large numbers of individuals which are diploid. Some species of lizards can also produce diploid progeny. Since a female parent is, in essence, cloning herself, parthenogenesis always produces only female offspring, since no recombination of genetic material between parents occurs, genetic variation within populations that use parthenogenesis is limited. However, this process can result in quick repopulation of a devastated area in a short period of time especially if the population has been thinned such that mating encounters between males and females are rare.

A grant issued by the government, which gives the patent holder the right to exclude others from making, using or selling a patented invention for a certian term. In most countries, the term begins on the date on which the patent issues ends and 20 year from the date on which the application for the patent was filed. Patents are granted on inventions which meet the requirements of novelty, non-obviousness, and utility. A patent holder cannot use a patented invention dominated by the patent of another, absent a license or cross-license.

See: polymerase chain reaction.

Two or more amino acids chained together by a bond called "peptide bond". A protein is a long chain of amino acids joined together in this way, and therefore is sometimes referred to as a "polypeptide". Some proteins contain more than one polypeptide chain.

A substance that kills harnful organisms (for example, an insecticide or fungicide).

A trait which appears to be identical to a genetic trait, but which is caused by non-genetic factors.

A set of observable physical characteristics of an individual organism. A single characteristic can be referred to as a "trait", although a single trait is sometimes also called a phenotype. For example, blond hair could be called a trait or a phenotype, as could obesity. A phenotype can be the result of many factors, including an individual's genotype, environment and lifestyle, and the interactions among these factors - the observed manifestation of a genotype. The phenotype may be expressed physically, biochemically, or physiologically.

A map of the locations of identifiable landmarks on DNA (e.g., restriction enzyme cutting sites, genes), regardless of inheritance. Distance is measured in base pairs. For the human genome, the lowest-resolution physical map is the banding patterns on the 24 different chromosomes; the highest-resolution map would be the complete nucleotide sequence of the chromosomes.

A structure composed of DNA that is separate from the cell's genome. In bacteria, plasmids confer a variety of traits and can be exchanged between individuals - even those of different species. Plasmids can be manipulated in the laboratory to deliver specific genetic sequences into a cell.

A single nucleotide on a chromosome.

Pertaining to a phenotype that results from interactions among the products of two or more genes with alternative alleles.

A method for creating millions of copies of a particular segment of DNA. If a scientist needs to detect the presence of a very small amount of a particular DNA sequence, PCR can be used to amplify the amount of that sequence until there are enough copies available to be detected.

(rotation of Presidency)

The Presidency of the Union is held in turn on a six-monthly basis by each Member State. A stint in the Presidency is a duty and a contribution that each Member State makes to the proper functioning of the Community institutions. At present, a Member State holds the Presidency every seven and a half years.

The Treaty of Amsterdam strengthens the role and position of the Commission President. The governments of the Member States designate the person they intend to appoint as President by common accord - a choice which then has to be approved by the European Parliament.

The governments then designate the persons they intend to appoint as Members of the Commission, in agreement with the new President. The President lays down the broad policy lines to be followed by the Commission in its work. He also decides on the allocation of portfolios among the Commissioners and any reshuffling of portfolios during the Commission's term of office.

In a declaration on the organisation and functioning of the Commission annexed to the EC Treaty, the Intergovernmental Conference recommended that, for the sake of consistency, responsibility for external relations be assigned to a Vice-President (at present it is divided between several Members of the Commission).

Cell or organism lacking a membrane-bound, structural discrete nucleus and other subcellular compartments. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Compare: eukaryote. See: chromosomes.

A biological molecule which consists of many amino acids chained together by peptide bonds. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. As the chain of amino acids is being synthesized, it is also folded into higher order structures shaped, for example, like helixes or like flat sheets. Proteins are required for the structure, function and regulation of cells, tissues and organs in the body.

Public health is covered by Article 152 of the EC Treaty (former Article 129), which was introduced by the Treaty of Maastricht. This article states that Community action is to focus on the prevention of illnesses, including drug addiction, by promoting research into their causes and their transmission, as well as health information and education.

Under Article 152 action towards these ends may involve Community measures, complementing action by the Member States. But the main approach should be to encourage cooperation between the Member States, in line with the subsidiarity principle.

The result of a crossover in a doubly heterozygous parent such that alleles at two loci that were present on opposite homologs are brought together on the same homolog. The term is used to describe the chromosome as well as the animal in which it is present.

Recombinant DNA is produced when genetic information from more than one organism is recombined in a laboratory process into a hybrid molecule.

The representation of the genetic distance separating non-allelic gene loci in a linkage structure or the arrangement of the mutational sites of a particular gene, by utilising the frequency of genetic recombination via crossing-over between genes and within genes.

In farming, an area of land near to Genetically Modified (GM) crops, kept free of GM plants where similar non-GM crops are grown, often without pesticides, to allow the development of a pest population.

A gene which controls the protein-synthesizing activity of other genes.

A relative risk (r.r.) quantifies how many times more or less likely the disease is in "exposed" people compared to "unexposed" people. Traditionally, exposure has been considered in terms of environmental agents; but in genetic studies, exposure can represent the underlying genotype or allele. A null value of 1.0 indicates that the disease is equally likely in exposed and unexposed people; a value greater than 1.0 indicates that the disease is more likely in the exposed people; and a value less than 1.0 suggests that the disease is more likely in the unexposed people. The relative risk is calculated from prospective data only.

European research and development policy is based on provisions in the three founding treaties (ECSC, Euratom and Title XVIII of the EC Treaty). The Single European Act introduced the concept of technology into Community law and the EU Treaty then developed the Community's objectives in this field. Supporting the competitiveness of European industry and promoting research to help it face technological challenges are the Community's priorities.

The coordination of initiatives in research and development within the Community is based on various instruments:

• the framework programme for research and technological development. This multi-annual programme, set up in 1984, coordinates more specific programmes dedicated to fields as varied as information and communication technologies, the environment, biology, energy (including nuclear), transport and mobility of researchers.
• the Joint Research Centre (JRC) and the Euratom Supply Agency. The JRC is made up of eight research institutes set up across the European Community to meet the specific needs of the Commission. It is at the forefront of research in nuclear energy (especially security) and has diversified into sectors such as materials, the environment, and industrial risks.
• COST, which was set up in 1971, covers 25 countries: the fifteen Member States of the European Union plus Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey. The aim of this European cooperation programme is to coordinate national research priorities in Europe;
• Eureka is an intergovernmental organisation of 26 countries including the Member States of the European Union, Russia, Switzerland and Turkey. It was set up in 1985 and aims to support partnerships between businesses and research institutes, especially in advanced technology sectors.

The multiannual framework programme is adopted under the codecision procedure. Unanimity in the Council is no longer required following the entry into force of the Treaty of Amsterdam. The specific programmes are always adopted by the Council by a qualified majority on a Commission proposal, after consulting the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee.

The development of a characteristic within an organism (e.g. an insect) whereby it becomes able to protect itself from the effects of a particular substance (e.g. an insecticide).

Degree of molecular detail on a physical map of DNA, ranging from low to high.

A virus that has RNA as its genetic material. When introduced into a host cell, it is used as a template to produce viral DNA, which leads to the formation of more identical viruses.

A molecule that translates the instructions encoded in DNA to build proteins.

A part of a cell that builds proteins by linking amino acids according to the sequence on a strand of messenger RNA.

So that it can play its role as guardian of the Treaties and defender of the general interest the Commission has been given a right of initiative which empowers and requires it to make proposals on the matters contained in the Treaty, either because the Treaty expressly so provides or because the Commission considers it necessary.

• This power of initiative is exclusive in respect of Community matters, the principle being that the Council takes decisions only "on a proposal from the Commission", so that there is a coherent framework for all initiatives.
• Under the common foreign and security policy the Commission may make proposals, as may the Member States. On the other hand it has no such right in certain matters relating to justice and home affairs.

The Council and the European Parliament may also ask the Commission to put forward a proposal if they consider it necessary.

The right of initiative is regarded as a basic element in the institutional balance of the Community.

Rural development has become the second pillar of the agricultural policy. With its links to agricultural activities and conversion, it is concerned in particular with:

• modernisation of farms,
• safety and quality of food products,
• fair and stable incomes for farmers,
• environmental challenges,
• supplementary or alternative job-creating activities, in a bid to halt the drift from the country and to strengthen the economic and social fabric of rural areas,
• improvement of living and working conditions, and promotion of equal opportunities.

The principle that the two partners of a chromosome pair are separated during meiosis and distributed randomly to the germ cells. Each germ cell has an equal chance of receiving either chromosome.

A gene whose expression allows one to identify cells that have been tranformed or transfected with a vector containing the marker gene.

Transferring pollen from the stamens withing a flower to the stigma of the same flower so that it produces seeds containing the same genetic information as the parent.

The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein. See: full gene sequence and partial gene sequence.

Short (200 - 500 base pairs) DNA sequence that has a single occurrence in the human genome and whose location and base sequence are known. Detectable by polymerase chain reaction, STSs are useful for localizing and orienting the mapping and sequence data reported from many different laboratories and serve as landmarks on the developing physical map of the human genome. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) are STSs derived from cDNAs.

Determining the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or determining the order of amino acids in a protein.

A somatic cell is any cell of the body except for germ cells (sperm cells and egg cells) and their precursors.

A genetic type within an organism.

The distribution of two segregating alleles at a single locus across a group of animal samples used for analysis in a linkage study. Used in the context of backcross data and data obtained from RI strains.

The subsidiarity principle is intended to ensure that decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen and that constant checks are made as to whether action at Community level is justified in the light of the possibilities available at national, regional or local level. Specifically, it is the principle whereby the Union does not take action (except in the areas which fall within its exclusive competence) unless it is more effective than action taken at national, regional or local level. It is closely bound up with the principles of proportionality and necessity, which require that any action by the Union should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve the objectives of the Treaty.

Each year the European Commission produces a report ("Better lawmaking") for the European Council and the European Parliament which is devoted mainly to the application of the subsidiarity principle.

A principle inherent in the safety assessment process that compares a genetically modified food with a conventional non-modified food with a long history of safe use. If the modified food has essentially all the characteristics of the non-modified food with respect to food and feed value it is said to be substantially equivalent.

A gene which helps to reverse the effects of damage to an individual's genetic material, typically effects which might lead to uncontrolled cell growth (as would occur in cancer). A suppressor gene may, for example, code for a protein which checks genes for misspellings, and/or which triggers a cell's self-destruction if too many genetic mutations have accumulated.

Form of agriculture, whereby the farmer is able to increase or maintain crop yields long term, whilst conserving natural resources and protecting the environment.

The process of transferring discoveries made by basic research institutions to the commercial sector, to be developed into useful products and services.

A process where individual cells (or clumps) of plant or animal origin are grown artificially.

The range of an environmental factor (also pathogens and pests) within which an organism or a population can survive.

Cells that have the ability to develop into any of the many different cell types which make up multicellular organisms. Embryos are composed of large numbers of totipotent cells which decline in number as development proceeds and cell specialisation begins to occur. Adults have a much more limited ability to produce totipotent cells than embryos. do. Organisms such as humans retain a complete set of genetic information in all adult body cells yet only a small fraction of an adult's cells have the ability to develop into multiple cell types. Recent research has shown that differentiated adult cells can be treated such that they become totipotent. Such totipotent or "stem cells" offer the possibility of a number of therapeutic uses such as repairing heart muscle after a heart attack or brain function after a stroke. Plant cells tend to retain much more of a capability of becoming totipotent - even in mature plants - than those of animals do.

A new scientific subdiscipline that combines the emerging technologies of genomics and bioinformatics to identify and characterize mechanisms of action of known and suspected toxicants. Currently, the premier toxicogenomic tools are the DNA microarray and the DNA chip, which are used for the simultaneous monitoring of expression levels of hundreds to thousands of genes.

A poison, usually originating in a plant or micro-organism.

A distinguising characteristic or quality of an organism.

The process during which the information in a length of DNA is used to construct an mRNA molecule.

RNA molecules which bond with amino acids nd transfer them to ribosomes, where protein synthesis is completed.

A process by which the genetic material carried by an individual cell is altered by incorporation of exogenous DNA into its genome.

An organism whose genome has been altered by the inclusion of foreign genetic material. This foreign genetic material may be derived from other individuals of the same species or from wholly different species. Genetic material may also be of an artificial nature. Foreign genetic information can be added to the organism during its early development and incorporated in cells of the entire organism. As an example, mice embryos have been given the gene for rat growth hormone allowing mice to grow into large adults. Genetic information can also be added later in development of selected portions of the organism. As an example, experimental genetic therapy to treat cystic fibrosis involves selective addition of genes responsible for lung function and is administered directly to the lung tissue of children and adults. Transgenic organisms have been produced that provide enhanced agricultural and pharmaceutical products. Insect resistant crops and cows that produce human hormones in their milk are just two examples.

A preparation that contains an antigen made up of disease-causing oganisms in a dead or weakened state. It is used to boost immunity against the given diseases, and can be created using the recombinant DNA process.

A group of organisms within a species, having similar characteristics but not distinct enough to be a separate species.

1) An organism which serves to transfer a disease-causing organism (pathogen) from one organism to another.

2) A mechanism whereby foreign gene(s) are moved into an organism and inserted into that organism's genome. Retroviruses such as HIV serve as vectors by inserting genetic information (DNA) into the genome of human cells. Bacteria can serve as vectors in plant populations.

Viruses consist of a piece of nucleic acid covered by protein. Viruses can only reproduce by infecting a cell and using the cell's mechanisms for self-replication. They can cause disease; modified viruses can also be used as a tool in gene therapy to introduce new DNA into cell's genome.

In farming, a crop plant of one type that grows spontaneously within subsequent crops of a different type.

Tissue or organs from an individual of one species transplanted into or grafted into an organism of another species, genus, or family. A common example is the use of pig heart valves in humans.

Transplantation of tissue or organs between organisms of different species, genus, or family. A common example is the use of pig heart valves in humans.

A vector used to clone DNA fragments (up to 400 kb); it is constructed from the telomeric, centromeric and replication origin sequences needed for replication in yeast cells. Compare cloning vector.

A cell produced by the fusion of a female gamete (egg cell or ovum) with a male

gamete (sperm cell or pollen grain). The joining of a sperm and egg cell is called

fertilisation. Zygotes are diploid and undergo cell division to become an embryo.